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What type of messages about COVID-19 are disseminated in public WhatsApp groups of Pakistan?

In this extended version, in addition to looking at the type of messages being disseminated across COVID-19 in Pakistani WhatsApp groups, we also try to understand the impact that political affiliation has on a group’s overall sentiment related to COVID-19 and the types of messages being propagated.

This work is an extended version of our earlier preliminary analysis of COVID-19-related messages being disseminated across public WhatsApp groups by Pakistani users (Javed et al. As a result, the moderation abilities on WhatsApp are very scant. Group admins cannot even do the simple moderation task of deleting a user’s post. Admins have very few tools at hand: either restrict who can post content or remove certain users from the group. The content of a group is only moderated by the groups’ administrators. These problems are exacerbated by the fact that content moderation in WhatsApp is rather limited. 2021) revealed the spread of hate speech and Islamophobia on WhatsApp. 2019a) revealed how WhatsApp can be an effective tool for the spread of disinformation. A study on Brazil’s WhatsApp users (Resende et al. Similarly, WhatsApp is also used for the propagation of antisocial behavior. Due to its end-to-end encryption, it is becoming a medium of choice for anti-government movements, sharing of radical ideas, and gang operations (UK says WhatsApp 2017). This makes WhatsApp a very important medium for analysis, as it is a major tool for opinion formation and social exchange. Apart from having a huge user base, it also has the most active users at a time, out of all the social networks (Two Billion Users 2020). This has created a closed social network of more than 1.5 billion users. Out of all these services and apps, WhatsApp is the most popular and widely used medium of communication. This has led to sharing ideas, getting exposed to different ideologies, and absorbing information at an unprecedented pace.

Applications like Twitter, Facebook, and WhatsApp are enabling millions of users to connect and interact.

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